Many Jewish students, and even Jewish student leaders, don’t know the basics of Judaism and Jewish texts. This Guide is a simple and accessible attempt to allow those who want to learn some of these basics to start finding answers.
The Guide to Jewish Texts is divided into nine parts. Each part asks the same questions about one Jewish text or other, be it
Torah,
Mishnah, or
Midrash. These questions include:
• What is it?
• Where does it come from?
• Who wrote it down?
• What do Jews do with it?
• What language is it in?
• What does it look like?
• Finally, for English language readers, ‘How can I read a copy?’
These questions, answered simply and systematically, allow readers to quickly find out the basic facts about the major Jewish texts. The Guide to Jewish Texts won’t teach anybody Talmud, but it will teach them what the Talmud is!
The Tanach is what many would call the Bible (or Christians would call the Old Testament). Don’t confuse the Tanach with the Torah, which is a constituent part of the Tanach.
The word Tanach is an acronym based on its three constituent parts: Torah, Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). The Torah, Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings) are separate compilations of works (24 in number) that are often published together (i.e. as the Tanach).
The Torah, Nevi’im and Ketuvim are detailed below.
Torah literally means “Teaching”. The Torah is the central ‘teaching’ of Judaism. The Torah consists of the ‘Five Books of Moses’:
• Bereshit (Genesis)
• Shemot (Exodus)
• Vayikra (Leviticus)
• Bamidbar (Numbers)
• Devarim (Deuteronomy)
The Torah is printed as the first part of the Tanach. The Torah is often called the Chumash. This comes from the Hebrew word for five, ‘chamesh’, because there are five books of Torah. Similarly, the English term for the Chumash, Pentateuch, is derived from the Greek ‘penta’ (meaning ‘five’) and ‘teuch’ (meaning ‘book’). A Torah scroll in synagogue—the Sefer Torah—contains the text of the Torah (or Five Books of Moses).
All Jews acknowledge the Torah as their most important writing. The word Torah is in fact often used to refer to the whole body of Jewish religious texts and teachings—from the earliest writings to a book written today. This dual usage can be confusing, but it is usually easy enough to tell if somebody is referring to the book/scroll, or to the whole of Jewish teachings.
As a narrative, it starts with the story of Creation and ends with the death of Moses, just before the entry to the Land of Israel. However, it is important straight away to say two things:
1. That the Torah doesn’t just contain narrative. Whole sections (especially in the book Vayikra) deal with laws and commandments;
2. That Jews consider every single letter to be important and to have meaning beyond the narrative.
• Bereshit (Genesis) starts with two accounts of Creation, Adam and Eve, and Noah. It then continues in chronological order through Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (the Patriarchs). It then goes on to tell the story of Jacob’s sons and especially of Joseph, his life in Egypt, and then concludes with Joseph’s death in Egypt.
• Shemot (Exodus) describes the slavery of the Jews in Egypt, and of their redemption under Moses. It describes the leaving of Egypt, and the Revelation at Mount Sinai. The Ten Commandments and many other laws, and the details of the building of the Sanctuary in the Wilderness are to be found in Shemot.
• Vayikra (Leviticus) contains laws and only a small amount of narrative. In Vayikra, God tells Moses to explain the laws on Priesthood, sacrifices, purity, and certain civil and criminal laws.
• Bamidbar (Numbers) describes how the Jews continued their journey through the Wilderness. It tells of the twelve spies, and the subsequent wanderings of the Jews. Bamidbar ends with the Jews at the borders of the Promised Land, forty years after leaving Egypt.
• Devarim (Deuteronomy) contains a review of the Torah, and Moses’ parting words to the Children of Israel prior to his death. It also contains further laws. The final chapter describes Moses’ death.
Where does it come from? Who wrote it down?
There is obviously controversy amongst different streams of Judaism and Jewish thought about the origin of the Torah. The traditional view is that the Torah is the word of God, communicated to and written down by Moses. This view holds that all of the Torah up until Revelation at Mount Sinai (i.e., until the middle of Shemot) was written down by Moses. There is then debate about when Moses wrote the rest of the Torah. The issue is that if Moses wrote it all down whilst on Mount Sinai he would have known what would happen next! Some think that Moses wrote the rest of the Torah as it happened, in stages; some believe that Moses did write it all on Mount Sinai. All agree that it had all been written by just after the death of Moses. Joshua is thought by some to have written the last few verses of the Torah, dealing with Moses’ death.
The Torah text (as written meticulously by a scribe) is different from the Chumash (or Tanach) text.
The Torah scroll (right image) does not contain chapter divisions (e.g. Numbers 13:2). These were added later by Christian scholars, but are used in the Chumash printed editions (left image) as a universal reference tool. They don’t refer to anything fundamental in the text—from a Jewish point of view. Unlike the Chumash, the Torah scroll doesn’t contain vowels or cantillation (singing) marks. The cantillation marks are used to allow leining (singing) from the Torah in a prescribed manner.
In what language is it written?
The Torah is written in Hebrew. This Biblical Hebrew is a very old Hebrew, and is different from more recent dialects (eg. Mishnaic or modern Hebrew). This difference is similar in kind and degree to Shakespearean and modern English. Hence Israelis can read and understand the Torah like English people can read and understand (or not) Shakespeare.
In synagogue...
“For it was taught: ‘And they went three days in the wilderness and found no water (Exodus 25:22)’. Upon which those who expound verses metaphorically said: Water means nothing but Torah, as it says: ‘Ho, everyone that thirsts should come for water (Isaiah 55:1)’. It thus means that as they went three days without Torah they immediately became exhausted.”—Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Baba Kama 82a.
The Torah is read in public on three different days of each week. It is read on Shabbat morning and afternoon (at the Shacharit and Minchah services), Monday morning (at the Shacharit service) and on Thursday morning (again at Shacharit). Thus there is never a gap of more than three days between public readings of the Torah.
The sages divided the Torah into 54 portions to allow for a completion in an annual public reading. These portions are called sidrot. Each week, a different sidra is read in synagogue. (Because there are 54 sidrot, some weeks two sidrot are read.) On festivals, two special selections from the Torah relevant to that day are read.
The word parasha is often used to mean sedra, but this is a misnomer. Technically a parasha is a paragraph marked by an indent on a midline blank space in the Torah scroll. Parashot can be as short as a sentence and as long as an entire sidra.
Each sidra is divided into seven aliyot (points at which someone from the congregation makes a blessing on the Torah, commonly known as “call ups”). These aliyot are decided by convention, based on natural spaces in the text. These can be seen in the Torah itself, although they are also made with reference to the content of the passages. On Saturday afternoon, Monday, and Thursday, the first aliyah (call up, or division of the sidra) for the following Shabbat is read—but three people are given the honour of reading it. The first aliyah is therefore subdivided into smaller units for use on three days of the week (these smaller units are still called aliyot though!) Four people are called to the Torah on Rosh Chodesh (the New Month), five—for major festivals (Pesach, Shavout, Succot, Rosh Hashanah) and six are called to the Torah on Yom Kippur.
On Shabbat, at least seven people are called to the Torah. It is possible to divide the Torah reading into more parts to let more people share in the honour of being called to read it, but whatever happens, the entire Parasha must be read on Shabbat morning.
Everyday use...
The Torah is studied extensively, and is the basis for all Jewish learning. That is why the Torah is read in public—to make sure that Jews are learning it. Torah is taught in Jewish schools and synagogues.
There is a custom of reading one division of the sidra each day of the week, so that each week the entire sidra is learnt. There are a number of different ways to learn the ‘Parashot HaShavua’ (which literally means ‘the weekly sidra’)—by classes or reading. Study of Torah at home, on the way to work, during leisure time etc. is part of the lifestyle of many Jews. The Torah is one of the most extensively studied Jewish texts.
Purchase or borrow a copy of the Torah, or Chumash. The best editions will have easy to read English and a lot of commentaries. The commentaries are the comments of scholars that make interesting points about the Torah text. Reading commentaries is easy and adds a lot of depth to your understanding. Just sit down, maybe start at Bereshit (the first book of Moses), and start to read. Or perhaps try to read the weekly sidra each week (perhaps an aliya each day. The editions of the Chumash that one usually finds in synagogue (Hertz or Soncino) have some commentaries on the text included. The Art Scroll edition is also highly recommended.
If you want to understand the themes and appreciate the depths of the Torah, perhaps try to read some other book alongside your Chumash. This is the sort of thing one might need to do when studying Shakespeare or Descartes in an attempt to really appreciate the text. One wouldn’t just read Shakespeare, but a book about the play as well. Remember, if you don’t read the actual text first, your understanding will be limited (just like with Shakespeare).
‘Moses was the greatest prophet, and there will never be another like him’. However there were other prophets who are thought to have communicated with God. Nevi’im is a collection of books about the lives and sayings of some of these prophets. Nevi’im consists of:
• Yehoshua (Joshua)
• Shoftim (Judges)
• Shmuel (Samuel)
• Melakhim (Kings)
• Yeshayahu (Isaiah)
• Yirmeyahu (Jeremiah)
• Yechezqel (Ezekiel)
• Trei Asar (Twelve Minor Prophets—Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habbakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi)
Nevi’im is the second section of the Tanach.
Nevi’im contains several third person biographical accounts of the lives of the prophets and accounts of prophesy. That is, the word of God spoken through the mouth of the prophet, in the prophet’s own style. Nevi’im contains many powerful prayers, hymns, parables, indictments, sermons, letters, and pronouncements. Historically, Nevi’im narrates the history of the Jewish nation’s entry into Israel under Joshua to the pre-Temple era of the Judges, Samuel, Saul, David, and the building of the First Temple. Nevi’im then continues to describe the era of the First Temple, and the warnings and exaltations of many prophets of Israel. Nevi’im ends with accounts of prophecies made at the time of the destruction of the First Temple.
The first books of Nevi’im are more historical in content. The later books are more poetic in style and often contain stark, ethical and spiritual warnings to the Jewish People.
Where does it come from? Who wrote it down?
Different parts of Nevi’im were written down by different people. Some prophets wrote their own book down (e.g. Joshua wrote Joshua), others didn’t. The full list is as follows:
• Yehoshua (Joshua) was written down by Joshua
• Shoftim (Judges) was written down by Samuel
• Shemuel (Samuel) was written down by Samuel, Gad, and Natan. Melakhim (Kings) was written down by Jeremiah
• Yeshayahu (Isaiah) was written down by the men of Chizkiah, a King of Judah
• Yirmeyahu (Jeremiah) was written down by Jeremiah
• Yechezqel (Ezekiel) and Trei Asar (Twelve Minor Prophets) were written down by the men of the Great Assembly in around 330-200 BCE.
The traditional Jewish view of the relation of Nevi’im to God is that each book is divinely inspired. The words of the Prophets are the words of God—but the Prophets could “see” God as we can see through clouded glass. So the content of Nevi’im was either written by people who communicated with God, or records what these people did, or both. Nevi’im does not have the same status as Torah. This is because Moses is believed to have had a “clear” view of God—and so could literally write God’s words.
Mostly one will come across Nevi’im as part of the Tanach. It can also be obtained in separate books. In both it is written in standard Hebrew characters, with full vowels and punctuation. A very old copy of Yeshayahu (Isaiah) is displayed with the Dead Sea Scrolls. This is written in the fashion of the time—and so it looks similar to a Torah scroll, without vowels or punctuation. The styles changed to suit the readers.
Selections from Nevi’im are read publicly each Shabbat after the sidra. Each selection is known as a Haf Torah. Each Haf Torah reflects the themes contained in the sidra of that Shabbat. The custom of reading a Haf Torah developed during the time of the Romans, when it was forbidden to study or teach Torah. The sages instead read selections from Nevi’im in public to remind people of the Torah portion that would have been read (and so studied) that week. This practice has been retained as a reminder of a time when Jews couldn’t study Torah.
Like the Torah, Nevi’im is in Biblical Hebrew. The language can be poetic in parts, rendering it both beautiful and complex.
Two highly recommended editions of Tanach are the Jerusalem Bible, which has very clear Hebrew and a good English translation, and the JPS Tanach, which has the best translation available. The Nevi’im section of the Jerusalem Bible, to give some idea of size, runs to almost 500 pages.
Artscroll publish a Tanach which contains a short commentary. This volume also contains some pictures, maps, and diagrams. It is also possible to buy individual Artscroll books with extensive commentaries.
The Hertz or Soncino chumashim provided in most synagogues also contain the Haftorot for each sidra. Reading the Haf Torah of the week, or perhaps a larger amount, would give a good introduction to some of the themes of Nevi’im.
The Ketuvim, or writings, are a collection of individual stories, philosophical essays, songs and poems. It also contains a continuation of the historical narrative from the exile into Babylon until the return to the Land of Israel and the building of the Second Temple. Finally Divrei Hayamim (Chronicles) is a very brief summary of the entire narrative contained in the Tanach.
Ketuvim consists of:
• Tehillim (Psalms)
• Mishle (Proverbs)
• Iyov (Job)
• Shir HaShirim (Song of Songs)
• Rut (Ruth)
• Ekha (Lamentations)
• Kohelet (Ecclesiastes)
• Esther
• Daniel
• Ezra-Nechemiah
• Divrei Hayamim (Chronicles)
Five of the books of Ketuvim are known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Scrolls). These are Shir HaShirim (Song of Songs), Rut (Ruth), Ekha (Lamentations), Kohelet (Ecclesiastes), and Esther.
Ketuvim is the last section of the Tanach.
As has already been noted, there is a great variety in the subject matter and styles amongst the books of Ketuvim. Tehillim, Mishle, and Shir HaShirim (Psalms, Proverbs, and Song of Songs) are self-explanatory. Ekha (Lamentations) is a poetic lament about the destruction of the First Temple and the subsequent exile; Kohelet is a beautiful piece of philosophical prose dealing with some of the fundamental issues of life. Iyov (Job) is a philosophical story that deals with the question of faith after tragedy. Rut (Ruth) and Esther are stories, the former—about King David’s great grandmother and her conversion to Judaism, the latter—the Purim story. Daniel and Ezra-Nechemiah continue the historical narrative. As mentioned above, Divrei Hayamim (Chronicles) is a summary of the historical narrative of the entire Tanach.
Where does it come from? Who wrote it down?
Different books of Ketuvim are believed to have been authored by different people. The following list outlines the traditional view of who wrote down what:
• Tehillim (Psalms) was written down by King David and Ten Elders.
• Mishle (Proverbs) was written down by the men of Chizkiah, a king of Judah.
• Iyov (Job) was written down by Moses.
• Shir HaShirim (Song of Songs) was written down by the men of Chizkiah, but composed by King David.
• Rut (Ruth) was written down by Samuel.
• Ekha (Lamentations) was written down by Jeremiah.
• Kohelet (Ecclesiastes) was written down by the men of Chizkiah, but composed by King David.
• Esther was written down by the Men of the Great Assembly.
• Daniel was written down by the Men of the Great Assembly.
• Ezra-Nechemiah was written down by Ezra.
• Divrei Hayamim (Chronicles) was written down by Ezra and Nechemia.
The books of Ketuvim are traditionally believed to have been divinely inspired. What this means varies from book to book, in some cases prophecy is considered to be the word of God, in others a poem or song is considered to have been inspired by God.
There was some debate amongst the sages about including certain books in Ketuvim. For example Kohelet (Ecclesiastes) was deemed by some to be too negative and depressing to be included. The status of other texts was also debated and some texts were considered to be “not quite right” in Jewish eyes. These books together compose the Sefarim HaChitzonim (External Books, or Apocrypha)—which have no religious value. Thus the process of deciding which books entered the Tanach was most definitely performed by humans—the sages of 1 CE.
As with Nevi’im, Ketuvim is now mostly reproduced in standard punctuated Hebrew. One would imagine that the Hamesh Megillot (Five Scrolls—see above) would be consistently published as scrolls, at least to use for ceremonial purposes. This is not the case (with the exception of Esther), and they are usually used—like the rest of Ketuvim—from printed books. Mostly one will come across Ketuvim as part of the Tanach.
Each of the Hamesh Megillot are read on different occasions in the year.
• Shir HaShirim (Song of Songs) is read on Pesach.
• Kohelet (Ecclesiastes) is read on Succot.
• Rut (Ruth) is read on Shavuot.
• Ekha (Lamentations) is read on Tisha B’Av, the ninth day of Av.
• Esther is read twice on Purim.
• Tehillim (Psalms) are read on many different occasions throughout the year as a great many prayers are simply quotes from Tehillim (Psalms). In addition Tehillim are often printed in a siddur (daily prayer book). The rest of Ketuvim are printed in the Tanach, and are studied in much the same way the Nevi’im are.
Ketuvim is written in Biblical Hebrew, except for the second half of Daniel and part of Ezra which are written in Aramaic. Much of the language is very beautiful and poetic.
Again, the JPS Tanach the Artscroll Tanach (which includes a short commentary) and the Jerusalem Bible are the recommended editions. Many parts of Ketuvim are stunningly poetic. Tehillim (Psalms) are printed in many siddurim (daily prayer books), but here they are usually printed without translation. Shir HaShirim, Kohelet, and Rut are to be found in the machzorim (special festival prayer books) for the days they are read.
Artscroll and others print single volume editions of the books of Ketuvim, with extensive commentaries.
The Torah requires interpretation and elucidation if it is to be put into practice. Such traditions of interpretation and practice became known as the Oral Law. After the destruction of the Second Temple, there was concern that the Oral Law would be lost. This led several rabbis to put together the Mishnah (which means ‘teaching’). The Mishnah is therefore a snapshot in time (from around 200 CE) of the Oral Law.
The Mishnah consists of six sections or sedarim (orders). These are:
• Zeraim (Seeds)
• Moed (Occasions)
• Nashim (Women)
• Nezikin (Damages)
• Kedoshim (Holy Things)
• Taharot (Purity Issues)
Each of these sedarim is further divided into parts called tractates. The tractates are divided into chapters, and the sub-divisions of each chapter are called halachot.
The sedarim (orders) of the Mishnah are on the following topics:
• Zeraim (Seeds)—deals with agriculture and prayer.
• Moed (Occasions)—deals with Shabbat, festivals, and fasts.
• Nashim (Women)—deals with infidelity, marriage, and divorce.
• Nezikin (Damages)—deals with civil and criminal law, the government, and ethics.
• Kedoshim (Holy Things)—deals with the Temple, sacrifices, and kashrut.
• Taharot (Purity Issues)—deals with laws of ritual purity and impurity, including menstruation.
The content of the Talmud in general—and thus of the Mishnah too—can be divided in to two main parts—Halachah (literally “the way” i.e., the Jewish way of living) and Aggadah. A very large amount of the Mishnah is thus given over to discussion of Halachah (Jewish law). Aggadah is the name given to a certain kind of writing (be it history, story, legend, allegory, scientific observation or such like) that is not legal or concerned with law.
Although the Mishnah isn’t arranged as a commentary on the Torah or Tanach in general, much of the Mishnah does explain the Tanach, wherever there seem to be gaps in meaning or narrative. In a sense, the Mishnah is the first Jewish encyclopaedia.
Where does it come from? Who wrote it down?
The Mishnah is the most important collection of the teachings of a group of scholars known as the Tannaim. These teachings had been passed down orally from generation to generation, and constituted much of the collective knowledge, teachings, and laws of the Jewish people at each time. The Tannaim lived between 400 BCE and 200 CE. The most famous Tannaim—and so some of the most prominent names of the Mishnah—include Hillel, Shammai, Gamliel, Akiva, and Yehuda HaNasi. Other collections of the statements of the Tannaim also exist (such as the Tosefta, Baraitot, and Sifra) but are not included in the Mishnah.
The collection of teachings that form the Mishnah was first arranged into six sedarim (orders) by Hillel, at the time of Herod (30 BCE - 20 CE). This system was improved upon by Akiva, and then by Meir. Finally, Yehuda HaNasi (Yehuda the Prince—head of the Jewish Community and rabbinic court) oversaw the writing down of the Mishnah in its present form, in the academy at Yavneh (near Ashdod) around 200 CE.
Some Jews believe that the content of the Mishnah is Divinely inspired, and that the Mishnah was passed down from God to Moses on Sinai, and then relayed orally by Moses. This is a point of disagreement between differing streams of Judaism.
Primarily, the Mishnah is studied. As one of the most important collections of Jewish teachings, the Mishnah provides both asubstantial guide to Jewish Law (Halachah) and insight into a Jewish way of seeing the world. The Mishnah can either be studied alone or, as is far more common, together with the Gemara.
Since the Mishnah is arranged by subject matter, it can be used to get a good overview of any subject.
The Mishnah is in Hebrew. This Hebrew differs somewhat from that of the Tanach (Bible). By the time the Mishnah was composed, Aramaic dialects had supplanted Hebrew as the language of everyday life, and Hebrew had thus become a language employed only for legal and religious purposes. The Hebrew of the Mishnah thus contains new grammar and forms of words as the language evolved according to the needs of those using it. The Mishnah is written like a concise legal text, similar in format to a telegram.
The Mishnah can be read in translation. The best edition is the Kehati edition—which prints Hebrew and English and also gives a commentary to explain the difficult language. The commentary is extensive, and so this edition is very large and expensive.
Danby has written a single volume translation of the Mishnah. It is very dry and fairly difficult to understand.
Since the Mishnah is fairly difficult to understand without commentary, it is easier to read the Mishnah together with the Gemara.
One relatively easy place to start study of Mishnah include Tractate Pirkei Avot—from Seder Nezikin (Damages), which is a fairly simple tractate, and is printed in full in many siddurim (daily prayerbooks). Other parts of the Mishnah might be attractive to someone with a specific interest—such as Tractate Succah (which relates basically to Succot) from Seder Moed (Occasions).
The Talmud consists of two specific collections of texts—the Mishnah and the Gemara.
As the Mishnah is written in such precise and terse verse, the rabbis needed to discuss and analyse it. The Gemara is the collection of the rabbinic discussions about the Mishnah and other teachings of the Tannaim (scholars from 400 BCE - 200 CE), which took place for three hundred years after the Mishnah was written down (200-500 CE).
The Gemara is a commentary on the Mishnah, and the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds contain two different commentaries on the Mishnah, each originating from a certain place (Babylon and Israel, not actually Jerusalem). Sometimes, the Gemara alone is called the Talmud, although strictly speaking this is not true as the Talmud also contains the Mishnah.
Talmud literally means ‘study’. The Talmud embodies the labours, opinions, and teachings of the ancient Jewish scholars in expounding and developing the religious and civil laws of the Bible during a period of some eight centuries (from 300 BCE to 500 CE). There are two different versions of the Talmud—the Talmud Bavli (lit. Babylonian Talmud), and the Talmud Yerushalmi (lit. Jerusalem Talmud). Each of these are very long—the Babylonian Talmud is usually printed as twenty large volumes and the much smaller Jerusalem Talmud—as three large volumes. The two versions of the Talmud contain the same Mishnah (i.e., there is one Mishnah, common to both) but different Gemara. The Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) is the authoritative collection, and is usually what people refer to when they mention the Talmud. Not every Masechet (Tractate) of the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara in both, or even either version of the Talmud. In general, the Talmud Bavli doesn’t contain a Gemara on Seder Zeraim (Seeds) as this is about agriculture in the Land of Israel which was not discussed in detail in Babylon. Seder Teharot (Purity) also has no extensive Gemara as laws concerning purity were so important in everyday life that it didn’t need to be written down.
Although the Talmud, strictly speaking, consists simply of the Mishnah and Gemara, if you look at a standard edition of the Talmud there are a lot of other commentaries and discussions printed in the book. Again, this is similar to some editions of a play by Shakespeare that may be printed with all sorts of explanations in the margins. The standard Vilna Edition of the Talmud is a little over a hundred years old.
If the Torah is the foundation of Jewish life, then the Talmud is the central pillar of Jewish study and thought.
The Talmud is ordered in the same way as the Mishnah, which is not surprising as it consists of the Mishnah and very extensive commentary on the Mishnah (the Gemara). Since the Mishnah deals mainly with matters of Halachah (Jewish Law), much of the Talmud is about exploring Halachic issues. However this is by no means exclusively what the Talmud is about.
The Talmud is a storehouse for information connected with the life, customs, beliefs, and superstitions of the Jews. It deals with issues as diverse as medicine, astronomy, commerce, agriculture, magic, botany, and zoology. The Talmud also gathers sayings and stories of the rabbis that are not directly connected to the Mishnah.
Because the main purpose of the Talmud is not to decide law but to decide what the truth is, it contains much material that doesn’t have any obvious practical application.
The contents of the various Masechtot (Tractates) of the Talmud is as follows. As can be seen from merely a glimpse at the range of major topics, the Talmud covers an enormous scope of material.
• Seder Zeraim (The Order ‘Seeds’)
• Berachot (Blessings) is about various prayers and blessings.
• Pe’ah (Corner, corner of the field) is about the laws of gifts to the poor, and charity.
• Demai (Doubtful, doubtfully tithed) is about what to do with produce about which there is a doubt regarding if it is to be set aside for the poor.
• Kilayim (Mixtures) is about laws regarding cross-breeding.
• Shevi’it (Seventh, the Sabbatical Year) is about the laws of the Sabbatical Year, when fields must lie fallow and loans are cancelled.
• Terumot (Contributions) is about the contributions to the Priests.
• Ma’aserot (Tithes) is about contributions that were made to the Priestly assistants.
• Ma’aser Sheni (Second Tithes) is about contributions that were made to the Priestly assistants, and assorted poor people.
• Challah (Dough) is about the laws of separating a portion of dough before making bread to give to the Priests.
• Orlah (Uncircumcised, “uncircumcised fruit”) is about the prohibition against using fruit within three years of a tree being planted.
• Bikkurim (First fruits) is about first-fruit offerings at the Temple.
• Seder Moed (The Order ‘Occasions’)
• Shabbat contains most of the laws governing Shabbat. In the Babylonian Talmud, it also contains a discussion of the laws of Chanukah.
• Eruvin (Mergings) is about the boundaries within which one may walk and carry ariticles on Shabbat.
• Pesachim (Paschal lambs, “Passover”) is about the laws of Passover.
• Shekalim (Shekels) is based around a discussion of the taxation levied for the running of the Temple service.
• Yoma (The Day, “The Day of Atonement”) deals mainly with the order of service in the Temple on Yom Kippur. It also deals with the Yom Kippur fast and prayer service.
• Sukkah (Booth) is about building a Sukkah, and the Four Species used on Succot in prayer.
• Betzah (Egg) is about the laws that apply to all festivals. It is named after the first word in the Tractate.
• Rosh HaShanah is about the laws of fixing the date of the New Year, and of the calendar in general. It also deals with the shofar, and prayer service on Rosh HaShanah.
• Ta’anit (Fast) deals with public fast days.
• Megillah (Scroll) contains the laws for reading the Megillat Esther (the Scroll of Esther) and of Purim in general. Incidentally it deals with the laws of both reading and writing the Torah and other scrolls, the laws of prayer, and laws about synagogues.
• Moed Katan (Minor Festival) discusses the laws of working on Chol HaMoed (the intermediate days of Pesach and Succot)
• Chagigah (Festival Offering) deals with pilgrimages to the Temple.
• Seder Nashim (The Order ‘Women’)
• Yevamot (Sisters-in-Law) deals with the obligation to marry a widow of one’s childless brother (levirate marriage), and forbidden sexual relations. It also deals with the laws of prohibited marriages and with conversion.
• Ketuvot (Marriage Deeds) deals the laws of marriage deeds, rape, and seduction.
• Nedarim (Vows) deals with laws containing vows.
• Nazir (Nazarite) contains the laws of the Nazarite, one who temporarily abstains from drinking wine and cutting one’s hair.
• Sotah (A Woman suspected of Adultery by her Husband) is about the laws concerning a woman suspected of adultery.It is also about the Priestly Blessing and the laws of warfare. Gittin (Bills of Divorce) deals with the arrangements for bills of divorce.
• Kiddushin (Betrothals) deals with the ways in which people may be betrothed. It also deals incidentally with the commandments binding on men and women, and those only binding upon men.
• Seder Nezikin (The Order ‘Damages’)
• Bava Kamma (The First Gate) is about types of legal damage.
• Bava Metzia (The Middle Gate) is about disputes over financial matters and property.
• Bava Batra (The Last Gate) is about laws of partnership and inheritance.
• Sanhedrin contains the laws of capital punishment, and judicial procedure in general. It also contains discussion of principles of faith and the afterlife.
• Makkot (Lashes) clarifies the laws of corporal punishment and banishment.
• Shevuot (Oaths) is about the various oaths administered in court, and by the Rabbis.
• Eduyyot (Testimonies) is a collection of sayings on a wide variety of subjects.
• Avodah Zarah (Idolatry) deals with idolatry and the restrictions regarding contact with non- Jews.
• Avot (Fathers) is a collection of ethical sayings by the Rabbis.
• Horayot (Decisions, rulings) deals with cases where the courts, Priests, or King made an error, and what they must do as penitence in such cases.
• Seder Kedoshim (The Order ‘Holy Things’)
• Zehavim (Animal Sacrifices) deals with animal sacrifices. It also contains an exhaustive discussion of the methods used to establish Jewish law.
• Menachot (Meal Offerings) is about meal offerings. It also discusses the laws of Tefillin (phylacteries) and Tzitzit (ritual fringes).
• Chullin (Ordinary, unhallowed) deals with the laws of Kashrut.
• Bekhorot (Firstlings) is about laws concerning first-born animals and humans.
• Arakhin (Valuations) is about the laws of dedicating things to be used for the Temple. Temurah (Substitution) is about laws governing the substitution of one sacrifice for another. Keritot (Excisions)is about sins which incur the punishment of excision (a special kind of Divine punishment)
• Me’ilah (Sacrilege) is about the laws concerning the unlawful use of objects that have been consecrated in the Temple.
• Tamid (Daily, ‘daily sacrifices’) contains the permanent laws of the Temple, and the arrangements for the daily service in the Temple.
• Middot (Measurements) contains the plan of the Temple, with measurements.
• Kinnim (Birds’ nests, “pairs of sacrificial birds”) deals with the sacrifice of birds.
• Seder Teharot (The Order ‘Purity’)
• Kelim (Vessels) is about the various forms of impurity of utensils.
• Ohalot (Tents) discusses the ritual impurity of a tent containing a dead body.
• Nega’im (Leprosy) contains the laws regarding leprosy.
• Parah (Heifer) is about the laws of the Red Heifer, which was used to purify those made “impure” by a dead body.
• Teharot (Purifications) contains general laws and principles of ritual impurity.
• Mikvaot (Ritual Baths) contains the laws of ritual baths, including how they are to be constructed.
• Niddah (Menstruating woman) deals with the ritual impurity of menstruating women, women who have bleeding not connected to their regular periods, and laws of ritual purity regarding a woman who has given birth.
• Makhshirin (Preparations, predispositions) is about how foods can be made ritually impure by contact with certain liquids.
• Zavim (Those suffering from secretions) deals with the laws of ritual impurity of those suffering from sexual diseases.
• Tevul Yom (Immersed during the day) contains laws about at what time in the day one becomes ritually pure after immersing in a ritual bath.
• Yadayim (Hands) contains laws about washing hands.
• Uktzin (Stems, stalks) contains a discussion of the laws governing the susceptibility of fruit to ritual impurity.
Where does it come from? Who wrote it down?
The Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) is a the collection of sayings and teachings of the Amoraim, in Babylon. The Amoraim is the name given to the generation of scholars responsible for the Gemara; the Amoraim lived between 200-500 CE. Most of the sayings of the Amoraim were needed to clarify the Mishnah. The assorted teachings of the Babylonian Talmud were compiled and written down in a process started by Rav Ashi and Rav Ina, in around 500 CE.
The Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud) is a similar collection of sayings and teachings, but of the scholars in Palestine. In effect, two separate communities of the time developed different intellectual traditions and explained the Mishnah in different ways. The Jerusalem Talmud was written down approximately 100 years earlier than the Babylonian Talmud, in 400 CE.
Each Talmud is thus the recorded dialogue of generations of scholars of a certain place, edited together at a certain time to form a more complete discussion.
Like the Mishnah, the entire Talmud is believed to be Divinely inspired by some Jews. Again, as with the Mishnah, the same disagreements about the status of the entire Talmud exists.
The Talmud is a compendium of some of the main discussions concerning a Jewish world view. Although it is used as the key source material for establishing Halachah (Jewish Law), it is also much more than that. The Talmud, through its breadth and depth of material, links the key text of the Torah to the world.
It is important to know that the two Talmuds are not on an equal footing. The Babylonian Talmud is seen as authoritative. There are three main reasons for this. First of all the Babylonian Talmud was completed later, and so it is addresses issues raised in the Jerusalem Talmud. Secondly the Babylonian Talmud is far more extensive than the Jerusalem Talmud, and this detail lends the work more weight. Lastly the Babylonian Talmud has a sharper and intellectually deeper approach. The difference in standing of the two Talmuds is so great that for most purposes, the Jerusalem Talmud is neglected.
The Talmud itself stresses that it is important to learn Jewish thought for its own sake, and this is borne out by the place of the Talmud in Jewish life. For hundreds of years, the Talmud has been the main source of material for Jewish learning. At age fifteen, many Jews start learning the Talmud, and continue this study for the rest of their lives. In Jewish places of learning throughout the world, the Babylonian Talmud is the text most commonly studied. It is because study of Talmud is not seen as merely a means to some end that minority opinions and entire arguments are recorded and learnt in the Talmud.
There is a custom to learn a page of Talmud (which is really a double page, or folio) each day. Called the Daf Yomi (Daily Page) system, hundreds of thousands of people around the world learn the same page of Talmud each day, completing the entire (Babylonian) Talmud in seven years.
Some passages from the Talmud are used in prayer.
The Halachah (Jewish Law) is developed by using the Talmud as the starting text. Decisions on what to do in various situations are made by first examining the Talmud. Here, the later an opinion (which is known by who said it) the greater weight is given to it.
The Talmud is mostly in Aramaic, but some Hebrew is used too. Throughout the Talmud, there are words and expressions borrowed from one language by the other.
Aramaic began as the language of the Aramean tribes but became the common tongue for many people of the Middle East after 100 CE.
The Aramaic of the Babylonian Talmud is Eastern Aramaic, which was spoken by the Jews of Babylon at the time. The Aramaic of the Jerusalem Talmud is Western Aramaic, which was spoken by the Jews of Palestine. The languages are similar to each other. Aramaic is also quite similar to Hebrew, and share common roots for many words.
The Talmud can be a very difficult work to study. The Talmud appears to have no internal order, and a strange logic all of its own. In parts, it is very complicated, and even experienced scholars have difficulty with it. On the other hand, some parts of the Talmud are more accessible, and yield entry into a Jewish way of thinking.
It is obviously very expensive to buy an enormous twenty volume Babylonian Talmud or even a three volume Jerusalem Talmud. A standard (Vilna) edition of the Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) in Aramaic (and Hebrew) today would cost upwards of $750. An edition is available with much smaller print that costs around $300, but is less comfortable to use. Luckily, almost all Jewish libraries contain a Talmud.
There are translations of the Talmud currently available. The best editions include the Soncino and the ArtScroll. Check before buying to see if the English translation is something that you feel comfortable with, as they can be difficult in places.
Steinsaltz is currently translating the
Talmud into English. The English translation is actually based on his translation into Hebrew (from old Hebrew and Aramaic). As each Tractate is completed, it is published. The Steinsaltz
Talmud contains a literal translation as well as a free translation. The free translation is very accessible. Steinsaltz also provides a very thorough reading of the text, and this level of accuracy makes the Steinsaltz
Talmud extremely dependable, which is important when each word is treated as vital and meaningful. The Steinsaltz
Talmud is a wonderful way to learn
Talmud for those who aren’t comfortable in Hebrew and Aramaic. The Steinsaltz translation of the
Talmud will fill over a hundred volumes, and each volume costs over twenty pounds.
No translation of the Talmud contains all of the extensive commentaries that are printed with the Talmud in the standard editions. The Steinsaltz translation does reproduce the most important commentary—that of Rashi—but is translated into simple Hebrew, not English.
Talmudic study is traditionally conducted in Chevruta (friendly learning pairs). Chevruta learning is done aloud, and is thought to aid understanding.
There are numerous classes in synagogues and other places based around the Talmud. Often called simply ‘Gemara Shiur’ (Gemara Lesson) these could be on any part of the Talmud. There are also numerous internet based classes, and even services that can link people to study Talmud together on-line.
A Page of Talmud—What does it look like?
The layout of the Talmud page that we have today was established approximately five hundred years ago. As new editions of the Talmud were printed, extra reference tools and commentaries were added, until the standard Vilna edition from around 100 years ago was printed.
(1) This is the page number, using the Hebrew numbering system. In this example the page number is 25. Each page is really two sides, e.g. 25a and 25b. The two sides back each other, and don’t face each other. On the reverse side, the English number is included, but counting pages and not double pages—e.g., 50.
(2) This is the page heading. On the left is the name of the Masechet (Tractate)—in our case Megillah, in the middle is the chapter number (Perek Shlishi, or chapter three), and on the right is the chapter heading (in our example HaKoreh Omed). The chapter heading is usually the first words of the chapter, and is often used for reference.
(3) This is the text of the Talmud, i.e. the Mishnah and Gemara. They are only a part of the content of the page, although everything else on the page is there to elucidate the meaning of the Talmud text. This Talmud text is, properly speaking the Talmud. The rest of the content of the page is not the Talmud, although all standard editions include it.
(4) When a new Mishnah starts it is preceded by the abbreviation mtni in larger letters, an abbreviation of Matnitin (our Mishnah). The start of the Gemara section that leads on from each Mishnah is indicated by the large letters gmi, the abbreviation of Gemara. In our example a section of Gemara starts following a Mishnah that started on the previous page. A new Mishnah starts near the bottom of the page.
(5) The text of the Talmud is further punctuated using the colon (:) which is used like a full stop, and the full stop (.) which is used like a comma.
(6) We don’t have one perfect manuscript of the Talmud. Printing errors occurred, printers corrected manuscripts incorrectly, and various rabbis have corrected manuscripts. There are doubts about whether or not certain things ought to be in the text. These words are indicated by brackets.
(7) This is the commentary of Rashi. It is found next to the Talmud text on the side of the page near the binding. Rashi wrote in Hebrew (with the occasional use of a word from French), but his commentaries, as well as most others, are printed using letters called Rashi Script. Rashi’s commentaries, like most others, start by quoting a phrase to be commented on from the main text.
Rashi is universally acknowledged as the greatest commentator on the Talmud. He lived in France a thousand years ago, and had a wide circle of students, who are collectively known as the Tosafot. Rashi’s commentary is related to by virtually all subsequent commentators.
(8) The Tosafot is the name given to the commentary compiled by Rashi’s students and their disciples. This name is also applied, as mentioned earlier, to this group. The Tosafot is printed on the opposite side to Rashi’s commentary, also using Rashi script.
(9) Occasionally cross-references to other Talmudic passages are added in to Rashi’s commentary and the Tosafot by later Rabbis.
(10) This is the commentary of Rabenu Chananel, who lived in North Africa at the same time that Rashi lived in France.
(11) Ein Mishpat (Study of Law) is a tool that cross-references Talmudic discussions with works that deal with Halachah (Jewish law) so that one can find out what normative decisions were finally made.
(12) Torah Or (Light of Torah), cross references the Talmudic text to passages from Tanach.
(13) Masoret HaShas (Tradition of the Talmud) in the inside margin of the page provides a reference apparatus to parallel texts and identical passages elsewhere in the Talmud.
(14)(15)(17) are suggested corrections to the text of the Gemara, Rashi’s commentary, and the Tosafot, that haven’t been incorporated by the use of brackets in the main body of the text. They are by, respectively, Rabbi Yoel Sirkes (17th Century CE), the Vilna Gaon (1761-1837 CE), and Rav B. Ronsburg (1760-1820 CE)
(16) Gilyon HaShas (Sheet of the Talmud) is a collection of notes on the Gemara, Rashi’s commentary, and the Tosafot, by Rabbi Akiva Eger (1761-1837 CE). It draws attention to many difficult problems and contradictions.
Midrash is the name given to certain collections of writings that are ordered around the layout of the Tanach. The Midrash is distinguished by the high amount of Aggadah it contains. Aggadah is the name given to a certain kind of writing (be it history, story, legend, allegory, scientific observation or such like) that is not legal or concerned with law. The Midrash is, therefore, mostly collections of stories that relate to words, themes, or narratives in the Tanach.
The word Midrash comes form the Hebrew root ‘darash’, meaning to search or investigate. Midrash attempts, through minute examination and interpretation of the Tanach, to bring out the deeper or ethical meaning of the text.
There are many different collections of Midrash. The largest collection is called Midrash Rabbah (The Great Midrash), which consists of a number of volumes. Other collections include Pesikta (Divisions), Mechilta (Treatise), Sifra (Book), and Sifre (Books).
The Midrash is about a wide variety of topics. Faced with opposition from those who interpreted Torah in a strictly literal sense, the Rabbis sought to find more subtle meanings within the words of Torah. The Midrash often includes whole stories from an examination of a word or words. Other times, the Midrash will fill in an apparent gap in a story. The Midrash can be thought of as an att
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